Connection-Oriented Networks ,SONET, SDH, ATM, MPLS,Optical Networks

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Contents
About the Author vi
Preface xiii
List of Abbreviations xvii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Communication Networks 1
1.2 Examples of Connections 3
1.2.1 An ATM Connection 4
1.2.2 An MPLS Connection 5
1.2.3 A Telephone Connection 6
1.2.4 A Wavelength Routing Optical Network Connection 7
1.3 Organization of the Book 8
1.4 Standards Committees 13
1.4.1 The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 14
1.4.2 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14
1.4.3 The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 15
1.4.4 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
(IEEE) 15
1.4.5 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) 16
1.4.6 The ATM Forum 16
1.4.7 The MPLS and Frame Relay Alliance 17
1.4.8 The Optical Internetworking Forum (OIF) 17
1.4.9 The DSL Forum 18
Problems 18
2 SONET/SDH and the Generic Frame Procedure (GFP) 19
2.1 T1/E1 20
2.1.1 Fractional T1/E1 22
2.1.2 Unchannelized Framed Signal 22
2.2 SONET/SDH 22
2.3 The SONET STS-1 Frame Structure 24
2.3.1 The Section, Line, and Path Overheads 26
viii CONTENTS
2.3.2 The STS-1 Section, Line, and Path Overheads 27
2.3.3 The STS-1 Payload 29
2.4 The SONET STS-3 Frame Structure 32
2.5 SONET/SDH Devices 33
2.6 Self-healing SONET/SDH Rings 35
2.6.1 Two-fiber Unidirectional Path Switched Ring (2F-UPSR) 37
2.6.2 Two-fiber Bidirectional Line Switched Ring (2F-BLSR) 38
2.6.3 Four-fiber Bidirectional Line Switched Ring (4F-BLSR) 38
2.7 The Generic Framing Procedure (GFP) 40
2.7.1 The GFP Frame Structure 41
2.7.2 GFP Client-independent Functions 42
2.7.3 GFP Client-dependent Functions 43
2.8 Data over SONET/SDH (DoS) 43
2.8.1 Virtual Concatenation 44
2.8.2 Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS) 45
Problems 45
3 ATM Networks 47
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 The Structure of the Header of the ATM Cell 48
3.3 The ATM Protocol Stack 52
3.4 The Physical Layer 53
3.4.1 The Transmission Convergence (TC) Sublayer 53
3.4.2 The Physical Medium-Dependent (PMD) Sublayer 55
3.5 The ATM Layer 55
3.6 The ATM Switch Architecture 58
3.6.1 The Shared Memory Switch 59
3.6.2 Scheduling Algorithms 60
3.7 The ATM Adaptation Layer 62
3.7.1 ATM Adaptation Layer 1 (AAL 1) 63
3.7.2 ATM Adaptation Layer 2 (AAL 2) 68
3.7.3 ATM Adaptation Layer 5 (AAL 5) 71
3.8 Classical IP and ARP Over ATM 72
3.8.1 ATMARP 73
Problems 74
Appendix: Simulation Project: AAL 2 76
4 Congestion Control in ATM Networks 81
4.1 Traffic Characterization 81
4.1.1 Types of Parameters 82
4.1.2 Standardized Traffic Descriptors 84
4.1.3 Empirical Models 84
4.1.4 Probabilistic Models 85
4.2 Quality of Service (QoS) Parameters 87
4.3 ATM Service Categories 90
4.3.1 The CBR Service 90
4.3.2 The RT-VBR Service 90
CONTENTS ix
4.3.3 The NRT-VBR Service 91
4.3.4 The UBR Service 91
4.3.5 The ABR Service 91
4.3.6 The GFR Service 91
4.3.7 ATM Transfer Capabilities 92
4.4 Congestion Control 92
4.5 Preventive Congestion Control 92
4.6 Call Admission Control (CAC) 93
4.6.1 Classes of CAC Algorithms 93
4.6.2 Equivalent Bandwidth 95
4.6.3 The ATM Block Transfer (ABT) Scheme 98
4.6.4 Virtual Path Connections 99
4.7 Bandwidth Enforcement 100
4.7.1 The Generic Cell Rate Algorithm (GCRA) 102
4.7.2 Packet Discard Schemes 105
4.8 Reactive Congestion Control 106
4.8.1 The Available Bit Rate (ABR) Service 106
Problems 110
Appendix: Simulation Project: ATM Traffic Characterization of An
MPEG Video Source 111
5 Signaling in ATM Networks 115
5.1 Introduction 115
5.2 The Signaling Protocol Stack 116
5.3 The Signaling ATM Adaptation Layer (SAAL) 117
5.3.1 The SSCOP 117
5.3.2 Primitives 121
5.4 The Signaling Channel 123
5.5 ATM Addressing 123
5.6 The Format of the Signaling Message 126
5.7 The Signaling Protocol Q.2931 127
5.7.1 Information Elements (IE) 127
5.7.2 Q.2931 Messages 128
Problems 130
6 The Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) Architecture 131
6.1 The Internet Protocol (IP): A Primer 131
6.1.1 The IP Header 132
6.1.2 IP Addresses 133
6.1.3 ARP, RARP, and ICMP 135
6.1.4 IP Version 6 (IPv6) 136
6.2 The Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) Architecture 136
6.2.1 Label Allocation Schemes 141
6.2.2 The Next Hop Label Forwarding Entry (NHLFE) 142
6.2.3 Explicit Routing 143
6.2.4 An Example of the Use of the Label Stack 144
6.2.5 Schemes for Setting up an LSP 145
x CONTENTS
6.3 MPLS Over ATM 145
6.3.1 VC Merging 146
6.3.2 Hybrid ATM Switches 147
Problems 147
7 Label Distribution Protocols 149
7.1 The Label Distribution Protocol (LDP) 149
7.1.1 Label Spaces, LDP Sessions, and Hello Adjacencies 150
7.1.2 The LDP PDU Format 152
7.1.3 The LDP Message Format 153
7.1.4 The LDP Messages 153
7.2 The Constrained-Based Routing Label Distribution Protocol
(CR-LDP) 157
7.2.1 CR-LSP Setup Procedure 158
7.2.2 The Label Request Message 159
7.2.3 The Label Mapping Message 161
7.2.4 The Traffic Parameters TLV 161
7.2.5 Classes of Service 166
7.3 The Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) 167
7.3.1 Reservation Styles 169
7.3.2 Soft State 169
7.3.3 The RSVP Message Format 170
7.3.4 The Path Message 172
7.3.5 The Resv Message 172
7.4 The Resource Reservation Protocol – Traffic Engineering
(RSVP–TE) 173
7.4.1 Service Classes and Reservation Styles 174
7.4.2 The RSVP-TE New Objects 175
7.4.3 The RSVP-TE Path and Resv Messages 178
7.4.4 RSVP-TE Extensions 179
Problems 179
8 Optical Fibers and Components 181
8.1 WDM Optical Networks 181
8.2 How Light is Transmitted Through an Optical Fiber 183
8.2.1 Multi-mode and Single-mode Optical Fibers 186
8.2.2 Impairments 188
8.2.3 Types of Fibers 191
8.3 Components 191
8.3.1 Lasers 192
8.3.2 Photo-detectors and Optical Receivers 194
8.3.3 Optical Amplifiers 194
8.3.4 The 2×2 Coupler 196
8.3.5 Optical Cross-connects (OXCs) 197
Problems 203
9 Wavelength Routing Optical Networks 205
9.1 Wavelength Routing Networks 205
CONTENTS xi
9.1.1 Lightpaths 206
9.1.2 Traffic Grooming 208
9.2 Protection Schemes 210
9.2.1 Point-to-point Links 210
9.2.2 WDM Optical Rings 210
9.2.3 Mesh Optical Networks 212
9.3 The ITU-T G.709 Standard – The Digital Wrapper 213
9.3.1 The Optical Channel (Och) Frame 214
9.3.2 Overhead Types 215
9.4 Control Plane Architectures 218
9.5 Generalized MPLS (GMPLS) 220
9.5.1 Basic Features of GMPLS 221
9.5.2 CR-LDP Extensions for GMPLS 226
9.5.3 RSVP-TE Extensions For GMPLS 228
9.6 The OIF UNI 229
9.6.1 The UNI Abstract Messages 230
9.6.2 LDP Extensions for UNI Signaling 232
9.6.3 RSVP Extensions For UNI Signaling 234
Problems 235
Appendix: Simulation Project: Calculation of Call Blocking
Probabilities in a Wavelength Routing Network 236
10 Optical Burst Switching 241
10.1 Optical Packet Switching 242
10.1.1 A Space Switch 243
10.2 Optical Burst Switching (OBS) 245
10.2.1 Connection Setup Schemes 246
10.2.2 Reservation and Release of Resources in an OXC 248
10.2.3 Scheduling of Bursts at an OBS Node 249
10.2.4 Lost Bursts 250
10.2.5 Burst Assembly 251
10.3 The Jumpstart Project 251
10.3.1 Signaling Messages 252
10.3.2 The Signaling Message Structure 254
10.3.3 Addressing 255
10.3.4 The Routing Architecture 256
Problems 259
11 Access Networks 261
11.1 The ADSL-based Access Networks 261
11.1.1 The Discrete Multi-tone (DMT) Technique 263
11.1.2 Bearer Channels 264
11.1.3 The ADSL Super Frame 266
11.1.4 Schemes for Accessing Network Service Providers 266
11.1.5 The ADSL2 and ADSL2+Standards 269
11.2 The Cable-based Access Network 272
11.2.1 The Physical Layer 274
xii CONTENTS
11.2.2 The DOCSIS MAC Frame Format 275
11.2.3 The DOCSIS MAC Protocol Operation 277
11.2.4 Quality of Service (QoS) 280
11.3 The ATM Passive Optical Network 281
11.3.1 Frame Structures for Downstream and Upstream
Transmission 284
11.3.2 The PLOAM Cell 285
11.3.3 The Divided-slots Cell 287
11.3.4 Churning 289
11.3.5 Ranging 289
Problems 289
12 Voice Over ATM and MPLS 291
12.1 Background 292
12.1.1 Basic Concepts 292
12.1.2 Channel-Associated Signaling (CAS) 294
12.1.3 Signaling System No. 7 (SS7) 296
12.1.4 Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN) 297
12.1.5 Digital Subscriber Signaling System No. 1 (DSS1) 300
12.2 Voice Over ATM Specifications 301
12.3 The Circuit Emulation Services (CES) Specification 302
12.3.1 Structured DS1/E1/J2N×64 Kbps Service 303
12.3.2 DS1/E1/J2 Unstructured Service 303
12.4 The ATM Trunking Using AAL 2 for Narrowband Services
Specification 304
12.4.1 Switched and Non-Switched Trunking 305
12.4.2 IWF Functionality for Switched Trunking 305
12.4.3 IWF Functionality for Non-switched Trunking 305
12.5 The AAL 2 Service-Specific Convergence Sublayer (SSCS) for
Trunking 306
12.5.1 User Functions 306
12.5.2 The Service-Specific Convergence Sublayer 308
12.6 The Segmentation and Reassembly SSCS for AAL 2
(SEG-SSCS) 310
12.6.1 SSSAR 311
12.6.2 SSTED 311
12.6.3 SSADT 312
12.7 Voice Over MPLS (VoMPLS) 312
12.8 TDM Transport Over MPLS Using AAL 1 313
12.9 I.366.2 Voice Trunking Format Over MPLS 315
Problems


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Contents
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xvii
About the Author
Preface xxi
Acknowledgements xxv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is a WDM-enabled Optical Network 1
1.1.1 TDM vs. WDM 2
1.1.2 WDM Optical Network Evolution 4
1.2 Why IP over WDM 6
1.3 What is IP over WDM 7
1.4 Next-generation Internet 11
1.5 IP/WDM Standardisation 14
1.6 Summary and Subject Overview 16
2 Review 19
2.1 Telecommunication Networks 19
2.2 Optical Communications 21
2.2.1 Optical Communication Impairments 23
2.2.2 Optical Switching 25
2.2.3 Opaque vs. Transparent Switching 28
2.3 WDM Network Testbed and Product Comparison 29
2.3.1 WDM Network Testbeds 29
2.3.2 Product Comparison 32
2.4 Communication Protocols 32
2.5 Internet Architecture 35
2.6 IPv4 Addressing 36
2.6.1 Subnetting 38
xix
2.6.2 Unnumbered Addresses 39
2.6.3 Secondary Addresses 39
2.6.4 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) 40
2.7 Gigabit Ethernet 40
2.7.1 Gigabit Ethernet Architecture 42
2.7.2 Gigabit Ethernet Applications 43
2.8 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) 44
2.8.1 Label Distribution 46
2.8.2 Traffic Engineering 48
2.8.3 Quality of Service (QoS) 49
2.8.4 Virtual Private Network (VPN) 51
2.9 Distributed Systems 52
2.9.1 Design Objectives 53
2.9.2 Architectural Models 54
2.9.3 Clustering 55
2.9.4 API for Distributed Applications 55
3 Characteristics of the Internet and IP Routing 57
3.1 IP Router Overview 57
3.1.1 IPv4 Datagram 58
3.1.2 QoS Queuing Models 61
3.2 Internet Traffic Engineering 62
3.2.1 Shortest Path Routing 62
3.2.2 Equal Cost Multi-Path (ECMP) 63
3.2.3 Optimised Multi-Path (OMP) 63
3.2.4 MPLS OMP 64
3.3 TCP Traffic Policing 64
3.3.1 TCP Flow Control 65
3.3.2 TCP Congestion Control 67
3.4 Internet Traffic Characteristics and Models 69
3.4.1 Internet Traffic Statistics 70
3.4.2 Traffic Models and Long Range Dependence 79
3.5 Internet Routing 83
3.6 Open Shortest Path First Protocol (OSPF) 85
3.6.1 OSPF Messages 86
3.6.2 Link State Advertisement (LSA) 87
3.6.3 Routing in OSPF 88
3.7 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) 90
3.7.1 Internal and External BGP 90
3.7.2 BGP Messages 91
3.7.3 Path Attributes 93
3.7.4 Policy Filtering 94
3.7.5 BGP Routing 94
3.8 IPv6 95
CONTENTS vi
4 WDM Optical Networks 99
4.1 Optical Modulation 99
4.2 Optical Switching Components and Technology 101
4.2.1 Optical Amplifier (OAMP) and Repeater 101
4.2.2 Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (OADM) 102
4.2.3 Optical Crossconnect (OXC) 102
4.2.4 Transponder 104
4.2.5 Switching Fabric 105
4.2.6 Optical Switch/Router 111
4.3 WDM NC&M Framework 113
4.3.1 TMN Framework 113
4.3.2 WDM Network Management and Visualisation Framework 116
4.4 WDM Network Information Model 119
4.4.1 WDM Object Model 120
4.4.2 An Example of WDM Network and Connection MIB 123
4.5 WDM NC&M Functionality 126
4.5.1 Connection Management 126
4.5.2 Connection Discovery 139
4.5.3 WDM Client Topology Reconfiguration 140
4.5.4 Signal Quality Monitoring 141
4.5.5 Fault Management 142
4.6 WDM NE Management 143
4.6.1 NE MIB 145
4.6.2 NE Interfaces 147
4.7 WDM Signalling 147
4.7.1 Wavelength Signalling and Routing 147
4.7.2 Circuit Switching vs. Just-In-Time (JIT) Burst Switching 148
4.8 WDM DCN 151
4.9 WDM Network Views 152
4.10 Discussion 154
5 IP over WDM 155
5.1 IP over WDM Networking Architectures 155
5.1.1 What is Optical Burst Switching 156
5.1.2 What is Optical Packet Switching 157
5.1.3 Three IP/WDM Networking Architectures 158
5.2 IP/WDM Internetworking Models 162
5.2.1 IP over Reconfigurable WDM 162
5.2.2 IP over Switched WDM 166
5.3 IP/WDM Service Models 169
5.3.1 Domain Service Model 169
5.3.2 Unified Service Model 171
5.3.3 Services 171
5.4 Summary 172
CONTENTS vii
6 IP/WDM Network Control 175
6.1 IP/WDM Network Addressing 177
6.1.1 Overlay Addressing 178
6.1.2 Peer Addressing 180
6.2 Topology Discovery 181
6.2.1 OSPF Hello Message 182
6.2.2 Link Management Protocol (LMP) 184
6.3 IP/WDM Routing 187
6.3.1 Routing Information Base Construction and Maintenance 187
6.3.2 Route Computation and WDM Switching Constraints 189
6.3.3 OSPF Extensions 193
6.3.4 Routing Behaviour 199
6.3.5 Routing Scalability 202
6.4 IP/WDM Signalling 204
6.4.1 RSVP Overview 204
6.4.2 RSVP Extension for Optical Networks 206
6.4.3 RSVP Extension Implementation Architecture 207
6.4.4 RSVP Message Extensions 208
6.4.5 Hybrid Label Allocation Scheme for Optical Networks 212
6.4.6 Discussion 214
6.5 WDM Network Access Control 214
6.6 GMPLS 216
6.6.1 Discussion 217
6.7 IP/WDM Restoration 218
6.7.1 Provisioning Case Study 221
6.7.2 Restoration Case Study 222
6.8 Inter-domain Network Control 223
6.8.1 IP/WDM Network Reachability vs. Availability 225
6.8.2 Inter-domain Routing Information Exchange 226
6.9 WDM Network Element Control and Management Protocol 232
6.9.1 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) 232
6.9.2 General Switch Management Protocol (GSMP) 233
6.9.3 Optical Switch Control Protocol (OSCP) 239
6.10 Summary 243
6.10.1 Network Control vs. Network Management 243
7 IP/WDM Traffic Engineering 245
7.1 What is IP over WDM Traffic Engineering 245
7.2 Modelling of IP over WDM Traffic Engineering 246
7.2.1 Overlay Traffic Engineering 246
7.2.2 Integrated Traffic Engineering 248
7.2.3 Comparison of the Two Models 248
7.3 IP over WDM Traffic Engineering Functional Framework 249
7.3.1 IP/WDM Network State Information Database 251
7.3.2 IP to WDM Interface Management 253
7.3.3 Examples of Reconfiguration Triggers 253
CONTENTS viii
7.3.4 Traffic Monitoring and Measurements 254
7.3.5 Optical Signal Performance Monitoring 260
7.4 Teletraffic Modelling 261
7.4.1 Classical Telephone and Data Traffic Model 261
7.4.2 Novel Data Traffic Models 262
7.4.3 A Bandwidth Projection Model 263
7.5 MPLS Traffic Engineering 268
7.5.1 Load Balancing 268
7.5.2 Network Provisioning 272
7.6 Lightpath Virtual Topology Reconfiguration 273
7.6.1 Regular vs. Irregular Virtual Topology 274
7.6.2 Topology Design Problem Formulation 275
7.6.3 Heuristic Algorithms 276
7.6.4 Virtual Topology Migration 281
7.7 Reconfiguration for Packet Switched WDM Networks 284
7.7.1 Packet Switched WDM Reconfiguration Overview 284
7.7.2 Reconfiguration Conditions 286
7.7.3 A Case Study 287
7.7.4 Heuristic Algorithm Description 288
7.7.5 Heuristic Discussion 293
7.7.6 Lightpath Reconfiguration Migration 294
7.8 Simulation Study of IP over WDM Reconfiguration 295
7.8.1 Traffic Generation 296
7.8.2 Simulation Results 297
7.9 IP/WDM Traffic Engineering Software Design 303
7.9.1 Software Architecture for Overlay Traffic Engineering 303
7.9.2 Software Architecture for Integrated Traffic Engineering 306
7.9.3 IP Traffic Engineering to Network Control Protocol
(IP TECP) 307
7.9.4 IP/WDM User to Network Interface (UNI) 312
7.9.5 WDM Traffic Engineering to Network Control Protocol
(WDM TECP) 318
7.9.6 IP/WDM Traffic Engineering Tools 326
7.10 Feedback-Based Closed-Loop Traffic Engineering 327
7.10.1 Network Topology Implementation Process 329
7.10.2 Network Convergence 330
7.10.3 A Testbed Study on IP/WDM Traffic Engineering 330
7.11 Summary 334
8 Other IP/WDM Specific Issues 339
8.1 IP/WDM Group Communication 339
8.1.1 IP Multicasting 339
8.1.2 IP Multicasting in Presence of GMPLS 341
8.1.3 IP over WDM Multicasting 342
8.2 IP/WDM Network and Service Management 343
CONTENTS ix
8.2.1 CORBA Reference Model and Telecom Facility 344
8.2.2 Connection and Service Management Information
Modelling (CaSMIM) 348
8.2.3 Optical Network Service Management 349
8.3 TCP over Optical Networks 350
9 Concluding Remarks 353
9.1 Book Summary 353
9.2 IP/WDM Network Applications 354
9.2.1 MAN and WAN Network Transport 354
9.2.2 Layer 2 or Layer 3 VPN, VLAN, Leased Fibre Line or
Wavelenth Channel 354
9.2.3 Optical Interconnect 355
9.2.4 Bandwidth Brokers and Traders 356
9.3 Future Research 356
9.3.1 Scalable Common Control Plane for Optical Networks 357
9.3.2 Next Generation of TCP/IP 357
9.3.3 TCP/IP Performance Studies in Presence of a Number
of Parallel Paths and Unidirectional LSPs 357
9.3.4 Optical Packet Switching 358
9.3.5 Service Protection and Restoration 358
9.3.6 Optical Network Applications 358
9.3.7 Optical MIB Development 358
Bibliography 359
Web Site List 367

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