rfworld
2012-10-21, 04:02 PM
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CONTENTS
Preface xxi
Chapter 1 Radio Propagation 1
1.1 Introduction, 1
1.2 Loss in Free Space, 2
1.3 Atmospheric Effects on Propagation, 4
1.3.1 Introduction, 4
1.3.2 Refractive Effects on Curvature of Ray Beam, 4
1.3.3 Refractivity Gradients, 8
1.4 Diffraction EffectsThe Fresnel Zone Problem, 14
1.5 Ground Reflection, 18
1.6 Fading, 19
1.6.1 Introduction, 19
1.6.2 Multipath Fading, 19
1.6.3 Power Fading, 20
1.6.4 K-Factor Fading, 22
1.6.5 Surface Duct Fading on Over-Water Paths, 23
1.7 From Another PerspectiveA Discussion of Fading, 25
1.7.1 Comparison of Some Common Fading Types, 25
1.7.2 Blackout Fading, 28
1.8 Fade Depth and Fade Duration, 31
1.9 Penalty for Not Meeting Obstacle Clearance Criteria, 32
1.10 Attenuation Through Vegetation, 33
Chapter 2 Line-of-Sight Microwave Radiolinks 37
2.1 Objective and Scope, 37
vii
viii CONTENTS
2.2 Initial Planning and Site Selection, 38
2.2.1 Requirements and Requirements Analyses, 38
2.2.2 Route Layout and Site Selection, 40
2.3 Path Profiles, 43
2.3.1 Determiniation of Median Value for K-Factor, 46
2.4 Reflection Point, 48
2.5 Site Survey, 51
2.5.1 Introduction, 51
2.5.2 Information Listing, 51
2.5.3 Notes on Site Visit, 53
2.6 Path Analysis, 54
2.6.1 Objective and Scope, 54
2.6.2 Unfaded Signal Level at the Receiver, 55
2.6.3 Receiver Thermal Noise Threshold, 58
2.6.4 Calculation of IF Bandwidth and Peak
Frequency Deviation, 61
2.6.5 Pre-emphasisrDe-emphasis, 64
2.6.6 Calculation of Median Carrier-to-Noise
RatioŽUnfaded., 67
2.6.7 Calculation of Antenna Gain, 69
2.7 Fading, Estimation of Fade Margin, and
Mitigation of Fading Effects, 70
2.7.1 Discussion of LOS Microwave Fading, 70
2.7.2 Calculating Fade Margin, 71
2.7.3 Notes on Path Fading Range Estimates, 81
2.7.4 Diversity as a Means to Mitigate Fading, 82
2.8 Analysis of Noise on a FM Radiolink, 87
2.8.1 Introduction, 87
2.8.2 Sources of Noise in a Radiolink, 89
2.8.3 FM Improvement Threshold, 90
2.8.4 Noise in a Derived Voice Channel, 91
2.8.5 Noise Power RatioŽNPR., 95
2.8.6 Antenna Feeder Distortion, 103
2.8.7 Total Noise in the Voice Channel, 107
2.8.8 Signal-to-Noise Ratio for TV Video, 107
2.9 Path Analysis Worksheet and Example, 108
2.9.1 Introduction, 108
CONTENTS ix
2.9.2 Sample Worksheet, 108
2.10 Frequency Assignment, Compatibility, and
Frequency Plan, 113
2.10.1 Introduction, 113
2.10.2 Frequency PlanningChannel Arrangement, 113
2.10.3 Some Typical ITU-R Channel Arrangements, 119
Chapter 3 Digital Line-of-Sight Microwave Radiolinks 133
3.1 Introduction, 133
3.1.1 Energy per Bit per Noise Density Ratio,
EbrN0 , 134
3.2 Regulatory Issues, 135
3.3 Modulation Techniques, Spectral Efficiency,
and Bandwidth, 138
3.3.1 Introduction, 138
3.3.2 Bit Packing, 138
3.3.3 Spectral Efficiency, 141
3.3.4 Power Amplifier Distortion, 143
3.4 Comparison of Several Types of Modulation, 144
3.4.1 Objective, 144
3.4.2 Definitions and Notation, 144
3.4.3 Modulation Format Comparison, 145
3.4.4 Notes on Implementation and BER
Performance, 146
3.5 Some System Impairments Peculiar to Digital
Operation, 150
3.5.1 Mitigation Techniques for Multipath Fading, 151
3.5.2 ITU-R Guidelines on Combating
Propagation Effects, 153
3.6 Performance Requirements and Objectives for
Digital Radiolinks, 155
3.6.1 Introduction, 155
3.6.2 Five Definitions, 155
3.6.3 Hypothetical Reference Digital Path
ŽHRDP.for Radio-Relay Systems
with a Capacity Above the Second
Hierarchical Level, 155
3.6.4 Error Performance Objectives for Real
Digital Radiolinks Forming Part of a
High-Grade Circuit in an ISDN Network, 156
x CONTENTS
3.6.5 Error Performance Objectives of a 27,500-km
Hypothetical Reference Path, 159
3.6.6 Jitter and Wander, 160
3.6.7 Error Performance from a Telecordia
Perspective, 161
3.7 Application of High-Level M-QAM to
High-Capacity SDHrSONET Formats, 161
3.8 Considerations of Fading on LOS Digital
Microwave Systems, 162
3.8.1 Introduction, 162
3.8.2 Other Views of Calculations of Fade
Margins on Digital LOS Microwave, 163
3.8.3 Multipath Fading Calculations Based on
TIA TSB 10-F, 164
3.8.4 Simple Calculations of Path Dispersiveness, 169
3.9 Path Analyses or Link Budgets on Digital LOS
Microwave Paths, 170
Chapter 4 Forward Error Correction and Advanced Digital
Waveforms 175
4.1 Objective, 175
4.2 Forward Error Correction, 175
4.2.1 Background and Objective, 175
4.2.2 Basic Forward Error Correction, 177
4.2.3 FEC Codes, 180
4.2.4 Binary Convolutional Codes, 187
4.2.5 Channel Performance of Uncoded and
Coded Systems, 196
4.2.6 Coding with Bursty Errors, 201
4.3 Advanced Signal Waveforms, 207
4.3.1 Block-Coded ModulationŽBCM., 207
4.3.2 Trellis-Coded ModulationŽTCM., 210
4.3.3 Multilevel-Coded ModulationŽMCLM., 211
4.3.4 Partial Response with a Soft Decoder, 213
Chapter 5 Over-the-Horizon Radiolinks 219
5.1 Objectives and Scope, 219
5.2 Application, 219
5.3 Introduction to Tropospheric Scatter Propagation, 220
CONTENTS xi
5.4 Tropospheric Scatter Link Design, 223
5.4.1 Site Selection, Route Selection, Path
Profile, and Field Survey, 223
5.4.2 Link Performance Calculations, 224
5.5 Path CalculationrLink Analysis, 288
5.5.1 Introduction, 284
5.5.2 Path Intermodulation NoiseAnalog
Systems, 284
5.5.3 Sample Link Analysis, 289
5.6 Threshold Extension, 291
5.7 Digital Transhorizon Radiolinks, 292
5.7.1 Introduction, 292
5.7.2 Digital Link Analysis, 292
5.7.3 Dispersion, 294
5.7.4 Some Methods of Overcoming the Effects
of Dispersion, 295
5.7.5 Some ITU-R Perspectives on Transhorizon
Radio Systems, 297
5.8 Troposcatter Frequency Bands and the Sharing
with Space Radio-Communication Systems, 300
5.8.1 Frequency Bands Shared with Space
ServicesŽSpace-to-Earth., 300
Chapter 6 Basic Principles of Satellite Communications 305
6.1 Introduction, Scope, and Applications, 305
6.2 Satellite SystemsAn Introduction, 306
6.2.1 Satellite Orbits, 306
6.2.2 Elevation Angle, 308
6.2.3 Determination of Range and Elevation
Angle of a Geostationary Satellite, 309
6.3 Introduction to Link Analysis or Link Budget, 311
6.3.1 Rationale, 311
6.3.2 Frequency Bands Available for Satellite
Communications, 311
6.3.3 Free-Space Loss or Spreading Loss, 315
6.3.4 Isotropic Receive LevelSimplified Model, 315
6.3.5 Limitation of Flux Density on Earth’s Surface, 316
6.3.6 Thermal Noise Aspects of Low-Noise Systems, 318
6.3.7 Calculation of CrN0 , 321
xii CONTENTS
6.3.8 Gain-to-Noise Temperature Ratio, GrT, 323
6.3.9 Calculation of CrN0 Using the Link Budget, 332
6.3.10 Calculation SrN, 337
6.4 Access Techniques, 343
6.4.1 Introduction, 343
6.4.2 Frequency Division Multiple AccessŽFMDA., 345
6.4.3 Brief Overview of Time Division Multiple
AccessŽTDMA., 352
6.5 INTELSAT Systems, 354
6.5.1 Introduction, 354
6.5.2 INTELSAT Type A Standard Earth Stations, 354
6.5.3 INTELSAT Standard B Earth Stations, 360
6.5.4 INTELSAT Standard C Earth Stations, 361
6.5.5 INTELSAT Standard D Earth Stations, 361
6.5.6 INTELSAT Standard E Earth Stations, 363
6.5.7 INTELSAT Standard F Earth Stations, 364
6.5.8 Basic INTELSAT Space Segment Data
Common to All Families of Standard
Earth Stations, 364
6.5.9 Television Operation Over INTELSAT, 364
6.6 Domestic and Regional Satellite Systems, 372
6.6.1 Introduction, 372
6.6.2 Rationale, 373
6.6.3 Approaches to Cost Reduction, 373
6.6.4 A Typical Satellite Series that Can
Provide Transponder Space for
Enterprise Networks, 374
Chapter 7 Digital Communications by Satellite 381
7.1 Introduction, 381
7.2 Digital Operations of a Bent-Pipe Satellite System, 382
7.2.1 General, 382
7.2.2 Digital FMDA Operation, 382
7.2.3 TDMA Operation on a Bent-Pipe Satellite, 394
7.3 Digital Speech Interpolation, 403
7.3.1 Freeze-Out and Clipping, 404
7.3.2 TASI-Based DSI, 405
7.3.3 Speech Predictive Encoding DSI, 406
7.4 INTELSAT TDMArDSI System, 407
7.4.1 Overview, 407
CONTENTS xiii
7.4.2 Frame, Multiframe, and Burst Format, 409
7.4.3 Acquisition and Synchronization, 415
7.4.4 Transponder Hopping, 415
7.4.5 Digital Speech Interpolation Interface, 415
7.5 Processing Satellites, 416
7.5.1 Primitive Processing Satellite, 417
7.5.2 Switched-Satellite TDMAŽSSrTDMA., 418
7.5.3 IF Switching, 421
7.5.4 Intersatellite Links, 422
7.6 Performance Considerations for Digital Satellite
Communications, 425
7.6.1 Hypothetical Reference Digital Path for
Systems Using Digital Transmissio5 in
the Fixed-Satellite Service, 425
7.6.2 BERs at the Output of a HRDP for Systems
Using PCM Telephony, 426
7.6.3 Allowable Error Performance for a HRDP
in the Fixed-Satellite Service Operating
Below 15 GHz When Forming Part of an
International Connection in an ISDN, 426
7.6.4 Allowable Error Performance for a HRDP
Operating at or Above the Primary Rate
ŽThe Impact of ITU-T Rec. 5.826., 428
7.7 Link Budgets for Digital Satellites, 431
7.7.1 Commentary, 431
Chapter 8 Very Small Aperture Terminals 439
8.1 Definitions of VSAT, 439
8.2 VSAT Network Applications, 439
8.2.1 One-Way Applications, 440
8.2.2 Two-Way Applications, 441
8.3 Technical Description of VSAT Networks and
Their Operations, 442
8.3.1 Introduction, 442
8.3.2 A Link Budget for a Typical VSAT
Operation at Ku-Band, 442
8.3.3 Summary of VSAT RF Characteristics, 447
8.4 Access Techniques, 447
8.4.1 Random Access, 449
8.4.2 Demand-Assigned Multiple Access, 450
xiv CONTENTS
8.4.3 Fixed-Assigned FDMA, 451
8.4.4 Summary, 452
8.4.5 Outbound TDM Channel, 452
8.5 A Modest VSAT Network in Support of Short
Transaction Communications, 453
8.6 Interference Issues with VSATs, 457
8.7 Excess Attenuation Due to Rainfall, 460
Chapter 9 Radio System Design Above 10 GHz 463
9.1 The ProblemAn Introduction, 463
9.2 The General Propagation Problem Above 10 GHz, 464
9.3 Excess Attenuation Due to Rainfall, 467
9.3.1 Calculation of Excess Attenuation Due
to Rainfall for LOS Microwave Paths, 469
9.4 Calculation of Excess Attenuation Due to
Rainfall for Satellite Paths, 479
9.4.1 Calculation Method, 479
9.4.2 Rainfall Fade Rates, Depths, and Durations, 482
9.4.3 Site or Path Diversity, 483
9.5 Excess Attenuation Due to Atmospheric Gases
on Satellite Links, 484
9.5.1 Example Calculation of Clear Air
AttenuationHypothetical Location, 487
9.5.2 Conversion of Relative Humidity to
Water Vapor Density, 488
9.6 Attenuation Due to Clouds and Fog, 490
9.7 Calculation of Sky Noise Temperature as a
Function of Attenuation, 492
9.8 The Sun as a Noise Generator, 493
9.9 Propagation Effects with a Low Elevation Angle, 495
9.10 Depolarization on Satellite Links, 495
9.11 Scintillation Fading on Satellite Links, 495
9.12 Trade-off Between Free-Space Loss and
Antenna Gain, 496
Chapter 10 Mobile Communications: Cellular Radio and
Personal Communication Services 503
10.1 Introduction, 503
10.1.1 Background, 503
10.1.2 Scope and Objective, 504
CONTENTS xv
10.2 Some Basic Concepts of Cellular Radio, 504
10.2.1 N-AMPS Increases Channel Capacity
Threefold, 508
10.3 Radio Propagation in the Mobile Environment, 509
10.3.1 The Propagation Problem, 509
10.3.2 Several Propagation Models, 509
10.3.3 Microcell Prediction Model According
to Lee, 512
10.4 ImpairmentsFading in the Mobile Environment,
515
10.4.1 Introduction, 515
10.4.2 Classification of Fading, 516
10.4.3 DiversityA Technique to Mitigate
the Effects of Fading and Dispersion, 518
10.4.4 Cellular Radio Path Calculations, 521
10.5 The Cellular Radio Bandwidth Dilemma, 521
10.5.1 Background and Objectives, 521
10.5.2 Bit Rate Reduction of the Digital
Voice Channel, 522
10.6 Network Access Techniques, 522
10.6.1 Introduction, 522
10.6.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access
ŽFDMA., 523
10.6.3 Time Division Multiple Access
ŽTDMA., 524
10.6.4 Code Division Multiple Access
ŽCDMA., 527
10.7 Frequency Reuse, 535
10.8 Paging Systems, 538
10.8.1 What Are Paging Systems?, 538
10.8.2 Radio-Frequency Bands for Pagers, 538
10.8.3 Radio Propagation into Buildings, 538
10.8.4 Techniques Available for Multiple
Transmitter Zones, 538
10.8.5 Paging Receivers, 539
10.8.6 System Capacity, 540
10.8.7 Codes and Formats for Paging Systems, 540
10.8.8 Considerations for Selecting Codes
and Formats, 540
xvi CONTENTS
10.9 Personal Communication Systems, 541
10.9.1 Defining Personal Communications, 541
10.9.2 Narrowband Microcell Propagation
at PCS Distances, 541
10.10 Cordless Telephone Technology, 546
10.10.1 Background, 546
10.10.2 North American Cordless Telephones, 546
10.10.3 European Cordless Telephones, 546
10.11 Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunication System
ŽFPLMTS., 549
10.11.1 Introduction, 549
10.11.2 Traffic Estimates, 549
10.11.2.1 Nonvoice Traffic, 551
10.11.2.2 PCS Outdoors, 551
10.11.2.3 PCS Indoors, 551
10.11.3 Estimates of Spectrum Requirements, 552
10.11.4 Sharing Considerations, 553
10.11.5 Sharing Between FPLMTS and
Other Services, 554
10.12 Mobile Satellite Communications, 554
10.12.1 Background and Scope, 554
10.12.2 Overview of Satellite Mobile Services, 555
10.12.2.1 Existing Systems, 555
10.12.3 System Trends, 555
Chapter 11 Wireless LANs, 561
11.1 Definition, 561
11.2 IEEE802.11 and its Variants, 562
11.3 Wireless LANs and Other Wireless Technologies, 564
11.3.1 Benefits of a Centralized WLAN
Architecture, 565
11.4 Wireless LAN Frequencies, 566
11.5 Wireless LAN Structures, 566
11.6 WLAN Capabilities, 567
11.6.1 Distance Capabilities, 567
11.6.2 The WLAN Signal, 567
11.6.2.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
ŽDSSS., 567
11.6.2.2 Frequency Hop Spread-Spectrum
ŽFHSS., 568
CONTENTS xvii
11.7 IEEE 802.11 Layers, 568
11.8 Software-Defined Radio and Cognitive Radio, 570
11.8.1 Software-Defined Radio Description, 570
11.8.2 Cognitive Radio, 570
Chapter 12 High-Frequency(HF)Transmission Links, 573
12.1 General, 573
12.2 Applications of HF Radio Communication, 573
12.3 Typical HF Link Operation, Conceptual
Introduction, 575
12.4 Basic HF Propagation, 575
12.4.1 Introduction, 575
12.4.2 Skywave Transmission, 577
12.5 Choice of Optimum Operating Frequency, 580
12.5.1 Frequency Management, 587
12.6 Propagation Modes, 598
12.6.1 Basic Groundwave Propagation, 598
12.6.2 Skywave Propagation, 599
12.6.3 Near-Vertical IncidenceŽNVI.
Propagation, 602
12.6.4 Reciprocal Reception, 604
12.7 HF Communication Impairments, 605
12.7.1 Introduction, 605
12.7.2 Fading, 605
12.7.3 Effects of Impairments at the HF
Receiver, 608
12.8 Mitigation of Propagation-Related Impairments, 611
12.9 HF ImpairmentsNoise in the Receiving System, 613
12.9.1 Introduction, 613
12.9.2 Interference, 613
12.9.3 Atmospheric Noise, 616
12.9.4 Man-Made Noise, 622
12.9.5 Receiver Thermal Noise, 625
12.10 Notes on HF Link Transmission Loss
Calculations, 625
12.10.1 Introduction, 625
12.10.2 Transmission Loss Components, 625
12.10.3 A Simplified Example of Transmission
Loss Calculation, 634
12.10.4 Groundwave Transmission Loss, 635
xviii CONTENTS
12.11 Link Analysis for Equipment Dimensioning, 640
12.11.1 Introduction, 640
12.11.2 Methodology, 641
12.12 Some Advanced Modulation and Coding
Schemes, 643
12.12.1 Two Approaches, 643
12.12.2 Parallel Tone Operation, 643
12.12.3 Serial Tone Operation, 645
12.13 Improved Lincompex for HF Radio Telephone
Circuits, 650
Chapter 13 Meteor Burst Communication 657
13.1 Introduction, 657
13.2 Meteor Trails, 658
13.2.1 General, 658
13.2.2 Distribution of Meteors, 660
13.2.3 Underdense Trails, 660
13.2.4 Overdense Trails, 661
13.3 Typical Meteor Burst Terminals and Their
Operation, 663
13.4 System Design Parameters, 665
13.4.1 Introduction, 665
13.4.2 Operating Frequency, 666
13.4.3 Data Rate, 666
13.4.4 Transmit Power, 666
13.4.5 Antenna Gain, 666
13.4.6 Receiver Threshold, 666
13.5 Prediction of MBC Link Performance, 667
13.5.1 Introduction, 667
13.5.2 Receiver Threshold, 667
13.5.3 Positions of Regions of Optimum
Scatter, 668
13.5.4 Effective Length, Average Height,
and Radius of Meteor Trails, 670
13.5.5 Ambipolar Diffusion Constant, 671
13.5.6 Received Power, 671
13.5.7 Meteor Rate, 674
13.5.8 Burst Time Duration, 675
13.5.9 Burst Rate Correction Factor, 678
13.5.10 Waiting Time Probability, 679
CONTENTS xix
13.6 DesignrPerformance Prediction Procedure, 683
13.7 Notes on MBC Transmission Loss, 683
13.8 MBC Circuit Optimization, 685
13.9 Meteor Burst Networks, 686
13.10 Privacy and the Meteor Burst Footprint, 686
Chapter 14 Interference Issues in Radio Communications 691
14.1 Rationale, 691
14.2 Spurious Response Interference Windows
at a Receiver, 692
14.3 Typical Interference Control for Line-of-Sight
Microwave and Satellite Communication
Facilities, 693
14.3.1 Introduction, 693
14.3.2 Conceptual Approach to Interference
Determination, 694
14.3.3 Applicable FCC Rule for Minimum
Antenna Radiation Suppression, 699
14.3.4 Coordination Contours, 702
14.4 Victim Digital Systems, 704
14.5 Definition of CrI Ratio, 706
14.5.1 Example CrI Calculations Based
on Ref. 6, 706
14.5.2 Example of Digital Interferer into
Victim Digital System, 710
14.6 Obstructed Interfering Paths, 712
14.7 ITU-R Approach to Digital Link Performance
Under Interference Conditions, 714
14.7.1 Gaussian Interference Environment
M-QAM Systems, 714
Chapter 15 Radio Terminal Design Considerations 721
15.1 Objective, 721
15.1.1 The Generic Terminal, 721
15.2 Analog Line-of-Sight Radiolink Terminals
and Repeaters, 722
15.2.1 Basic Analog LOS Microwave Terminal, 722
15.3 Digital LOS Microwave Terminals, 725
15.3.1 Gray or Reflected Binary Codes, 728
xx CONTENTS
15.3.2 The Antenna Subsystem for LOS
Microwave Installations, 729
15.3.3 Analog Radiolink Repeaters, 740
15.3.4 Diversity Combiners, 741
15.3.5 Hot-Standby Operation, 749
15.3.6 Pilot Tones, 753
15.3.7 Service Channels, 755
15.3.8 Alarm and Supervisory Subsystems, 756
15.3.9 Antenna TowersGeneral, 760
15.3.10 Waveguide Pressurization, 765
15.4 Tropospheric Scatter and Diffraction
Installations: Analog and Digital, 766
15.4.1 Antennas, Transmission Lines,
Duplexer, and Related Transmission
Line Devices, 768
15.4.2 ModulatorExciter and Power Amplifier,
769
15.4.3 FM Receiver Group, 770
15.4.4 Diversity Operation, 770
15.4.5 Isolation, 771
15.5 Satellite Communications, Terminal Segment, 772
15.5.1 Functional Operation of a ‘‘Standard’’
Earth Station, 772
15.5.2 The Antenna Subsystem, 777
15.5.3 Very Small Aperture Terminals
ŽVSATs., 787
15.6 Cellular and PCS Installations: Analog and
Digital, 788
15.6.1 Introduction, 788
15.6.2 Base Station or Cell Design Concepts, 789
15.6.3 The MTSO or MSC, 791
15.6.4 Personal Communication Services, 793
15.7 HF Terminals and Antennas, 794
15.7.1 Introduction, 794
15.7.2 Composition of Basic HF Equipment, 795
15.7.3 Basic Single-SidebandŽSSB.Operation, 796
15.7.4 SSB System Considerations, 797
15.7.5 Linear Power Amplifiers, 798
15.7.6 HF Configuration Notes, 800
15.7.7 HF Antennas, 800
CONTENTS xxi
15.8 Meteor Burst Installations, 808
15.8.1 Yagi Antennas, 808
Appendix 1 Availability of a Line-of-Sight Microwave Link 815
A1.1 Introduction, 815
A1.2 Contributors to Unavailability, 816
A1.3 Availability Requirements, 817
A1.4 Calculation of Availability of LOS Radiolinks
in Tandem, 817
A1.4.1 Discussion of Partition of Unavailability, 817
A1.4.2 Propagation Availability, 819
A1.5 Improving Availability, 819
A1.6 Application to Other Radio Media, 820
Appendix 2 Reference Fields and Theoretical References;
Converting RF Field Strength to Power 821
A2.1 Reference FieldsTheoretical References, 821
A2.2 Conversion of Radio-FrequencyŽRF.Field
Strength to Power, 823
Appendix 3 Glossary of Acronyms and Abbreviations 825
Index 837
CONTENTS
Preface xxi
Chapter 1 Radio Propagation 1
1.1 Introduction, 1
1.2 Loss in Free Space, 2
1.3 Atmospheric Effects on Propagation, 4
1.3.1 Introduction, 4
1.3.2 Refractive Effects on Curvature of Ray Beam, 4
1.3.3 Refractivity Gradients, 8
1.4 Diffraction EffectsThe Fresnel Zone Problem, 14
1.5 Ground Reflection, 18
1.6 Fading, 19
1.6.1 Introduction, 19
1.6.2 Multipath Fading, 19
1.6.3 Power Fading, 20
1.6.4 K-Factor Fading, 22
1.6.5 Surface Duct Fading on Over-Water Paths, 23
1.7 From Another PerspectiveA Discussion of Fading, 25
1.7.1 Comparison of Some Common Fading Types, 25
1.7.2 Blackout Fading, 28
1.8 Fade Depth and Fade Duration, 31
1.9 Penalty for Not Meeting Obstacle Clearance Criteria, 32
1.10 Attenuation Through Vegetation, 33
Chapter 2 Line-of-Sight Microwave Radiolinks 37
2.1 Objective and Scope, 37
vii
viii CONTENTS
2.2 Initial Planning and Site Selection, 38
2.2.1 Requirements and Requirements Analyses, 38
2.2.2 Route Layout and Site Selection, 40
2.3 Path Profiles, 43
2.3.1 Determiniation of Median Value for K-Factor, 46
2.4 Reflection Point, 48
2.5 Site Survey, 51
2.5.1 Introduction, 51
2.5.2 Information Listing, 51
2.5.3 Notes on Site Visit, 53
2.6 Path Analysis, 54
2.6.1 Objective and Scope, 54
2.6.2 Unfaded Signal Level at the Receiver, 55
2.6.3 Receiver Thermal Noise Threshold, 58
2.6.4 Calculation of IF Bandwidth and Peak
Frequency Deviation, 61
2.6.5 Pre-emphasisrDe-emphasis, 64
2.6.6 Calculation of Median Carrier-to-Noise
RatioŽUnfaded., 67
2.6.7 Calculation of Antenna Gain, 69
2.7 Fading, Estimation of Fade Margin, and
Mitigation of Fading Effects, 70
2.7.1 Discussion of LOS Microwave Fading, 70
2.7.2 Calculating Fade Margin, 71
2.7.3 Notes on Path Fading Range Estimates, 81
2.7.4 Diversity as a Means to Mitigate Fading, 82
2.8 Analysis of Noise on a FM Radiolink, 87
2.8.1 Introduction, 87
2.8.2 Sources of Noise in a Radiolink, 89
2.8.3 FM Improvement Threshold, 90
2.8.4 Noise in a Derived Voice Channel, 91
2.8.5 Noise Power RatioŽNPR., 95
2.8.6 Antenna Feeder Distortion, 103
2.8.7 Total Noise in the Voice Channel, 107
2.8.8 Signal-to-Noise Ratio for TV Video, 107
2.9 Path Analysis Worksheet and Example, 108
2.9.1 Introduction, 108
CONTENTS ix
2.9.2 Sample Worksheet, 108
2.10 Frequency Assignment, Compatibility, and
Frequency Plan, 113
2.10.1 Introduction, 113
2.10.2 Frequency PlanningChannel Arrangement, 113
2.10.3 Some Typical ITU-R Channel Arrangements, 119
Chapter 3 Digital Line-of-Sight Microwave Radiolinks 133
3.1 Introduction, 133
3.1.1 Energy per Bit per Noise Density Ratio,
EbrN0 , 134
3.2 Regulatory Issues, 135
3.3 Modulation Techniques, Spectral Efficiency,
and Bandwidth, 138
3.3.1 Introduction, 138
3.3.2 Bit Packing, 138
3.3.3 Spectral Efficiency, 141
3.3.4 Power Amplifier Distortion, 143
3.4 Comparison of Several Types of Modulation, 144
3.4.1 Objective, 144
3.4.2 Definitions and Notation, 144
3.4.3 Modulation Format Comparison, 145
3.4.4 Notes on Implementation and BER
Performance, 146
3.5 Some System Impairments Peculiar to Digital
Operation, 150
3.5.1 Mitigation Techniques for Multipath Fading, 151
3.5.2 ITU-R Guidelines on Combating
Propagation Effects, 153
3.6 Performance Requirements and Objectives for
Digital Radiolinks, 155
3.6.1 Introduction, 155
3.6.2 Five Definitions, 155
3.6.3 Hypothetical Reference Digital Path
ŽHRDP.for Radio-Relay Systems
with a Capacity Above the Second
Hierarchical Level, 155
3.6.4 Error Performance Objectives for Real
Digital Radiolinks Forming Part of a
High-Grade Circuit in an ISDN Network, 156
x CONTENTS
3.6.5 Error Performance Objectives of a 27,500-km
Hypothetical Reference Path, 159
3.6.6 Jitter and Wander, 160
3.6.7 Error Performance from a Telecordia
Perspective, 161
3.7 Application of High-Level M-QAM to
High-Capacity SDHrSONET Formats, 161
3.8 Considerations of Fading on LOS Digital
Microwave Systems, 162
3.8.1 Introduction, 162
3.8.2 Other Views of Calculations of Fade
Margins on Digital LOS Microwave, 163
3.8.3 Multipath Fading Calculations Based on
TIA TSB 10-F, 164
3.8.4 Simple Calculations of Path Dispersiveness, 169
3.9 Path Analyses or Link Budgets on Digital LOS
Microwave Paths, 170
Chapter 4 Forward Error Correction and Advanced Digital
Waveforms 175
4.1 Objective, 175
4.2 Forward Error Correction, 175
4.2.1 Background and Objective, 175
4.2.2 Basic Forward Error Correction, 177
4.2.3 FEC Codes, 180
4.2.4 Binary Convolutional Codes, 187
4.2.5 Channel Performance of Uncoded and
Coded Systems, 196
4.2.6 Coding with Bursty Errors, 201
4.3 Advanced Signal Waveforms, 207
4.3.1 Block-Coded ModulationŽBCM., 207
4.3.2 Trellis-Coded ModulationŽTCM., 210
4.3.3 Multilevel-Coded ModulationŽMCLM., 211
4.3.4 Partial Response with a Soft Decoder, 213
Chapter 5 Over-the-Horizon Radiolinks 219
5.1 Objectives and Scope, 219
5.2 Application, 219
5.3 Introduction to Tropospheric Scatter Propagation, 220
CONTENTS xi
5.4 Tropospheric Scatter Link Design, 223
5.4.1 Site Selection, Route Selection, Path
Profile, and Field Survey, 223
5.4.2 Link Performance Calculations, 224
5.5 Path CalculationrLink Analysis, 288
5.5.1 Introduction, 284
5.5.2 Path Intermodulation NoiseAnalog
Systems, 284
5.5.3 Sample Link Analysis, 289
5.6 Threshold Extension, 291
5.7 Digital Transhorizon Radiolinks, 292
5.7.1 Introduction, 292
5.7.2 Digital Link Analysis, 292
5.7.3 Dispersion, 294
5.7.4 Some Methods of Overcoming the Effects
of Dispersion, 295
5.7.5 Some ITU-R Perspectives on Transhorizon
Radio Systems, 297
5.8 Troposcatter Frequency Bands and the Sharing
with Space Radio-Communication Systems, 300
5.8.1 Frequency Bands Shared with Space
ServicesŽSpace-to-Earth., 300
Chapter 6 Basic Principles of Satellite Communications 305
6.1 Introduction, Scope, and Applications, 305
6.2 Satellite SystemsAn Introduction, 306
6.2.1 Satellite Orbits, 306
6.2.2 Elevation Angle, 308
6.2.3 Determination of Range and Elevation
Angle of a Geostationary Satellite, 309
6.3 Introduction to Link Analysis or Link Budget, 311
6.3.1 Rationale, 311
6.3.2 Frequency Bands Available for Satellite
Communications, 311
6.3.3 Free-Space Loss or Spreading Loss, 315
6.3.4 Isotropic Receive LevelSimplified Model, 315
6.3.5 Limitation of Flux Density on Earth’s Surface, 316
6.3.6 Thermal Noise Aspects of Low-Noise Systems, 318
6.3.7 Calculation of CrN0 , 321
xii CONTENTS
6.3.8 Gain-to-Noise Temperature Ratio, GrT, 323
6.3.9 Calculation of CrN0 Using the Link Budget, 332
6.3.10 Calculation SrN, 337
6.4 Access Techniques, 343
6.4.1 Introduction, 343
6.4.2 Frequency Division Multiple AccessŽFMDA., 345
6.4.3 Brief Overview of Time Division Multiple
AccessŽTDMA., 352
6.5 INTELSAT Systems, 354
6.5.1 Introduction, 354
6.5.2 INTELSAT Type A Standard Earth Stations, 354
6.5.3 INTELSAT Standard B Earth Stations, 360
6.5.4 INTELSAT Standard C Earth Stations, 361
6.5.5 INTELSAT Standard D Earth Stations, 361
6.5.6 INTELSAT Standard E Earth Stations, 363
6.5.7 INTELSAT Standard F Earth Stations, 364
6.5.8 Basic INTELSAT Space Segment Data
Common to All Families of Standard
Earth Stations, 364
6.5.9 Television Operation Over INTELSAT, 364
6.6 Domestic and Regional Satellite Systems, 372
6.6.1 Introduction, 372
6.6.2 Rationale, 373
6.6.3 Approaches to Cost Reduction, 373
6.6.4 A Typical Satellite Series that Can
Provide Transponder Space for
Enterprise Networks, 374
Chapter 7 Digital Communications by Satellite 381
7.1 Introduction, 381
7.2 Digital Operations of a Bent-Pipe Satellite System, 382
7.2.1 General, 382
7.2.2 Digital FMDA Operation, 382
7.2.3 TDMA Operation on a Bent-Pipe Satellite, 394
7.3 Digital Speech Interpolation, 403
7.3.1 Freeze-Out and Clipping, 404
7.3.2 TASI-Based DSI, 405
7.3.3 Speech Predictive Encoding DSI, 406
7.4 INTELSAT TDMArDSI System, 407
7.4.1 Overview, 407
CONTENTS xiii
7.4.2 Frame, Multiframe, and Burst Format, 409
7.4.3 Acquisition and Synchronization, 415
7.4.4 Transponder Hopping, 415
7.4.5 Digital Speech Interpolation Interface, 415
7.5 Processing Satellites, 416
7.5.1 Primitive Processing Satellite, 417
7.5.2 Switched-Satellite TDMAŽSSrTDMA., 418
7.5.3 IF Switching, 421
7.5.4 Intersatellite Links, 422
7.6 Performance Considerations for Digital Satellite
Communications, 425
7.6.1 Hypothetical Reference Digital Path for
Systems Using Digital Transmissio5 in
the Fixed-Satellite Service, 425
7.6.2 BERs at the Output of a HRDP for Systems
Using PCM Telephony, 426
7.6.3 Allowable Error Performance for a HRDP
in the Fixed-Satellite Service Operating
Below 15 GHz When Forming Part of an
International Connection in an ISDN, 426
7.6.4 Allowable Error Performance for a HRDP
Operating at or Above the Primary Rate
ŽThe Impact of ITU-T Rec. 5.826., 428
7.7 Link Budgets for Digital Satellites, 431
7.7.1 Commentary, 431
Chapter 8 Very Small Aperture Terminals 439
8.1 Definitions of VSAT, 439
8.2 VSAT Network Applications, 439
8.2.1 One-Way Applications, 440
8.2.2 Two-Way Applications, 441
8.3 Technical Description of VSAT Networks and
Their Operations, 442
8.3.1 Introduction, 442
8.3.2 A Link Budget for a Typical VSAT
Operation at Ku-Band, 442
8.3.3 Summary of VSAT RF Characteristics, 447
8.4 Access Techniques, 447
8.4.1 Random Access, 449
8.4.2 Demand-Assigned Multiple Access, 450
xiv CONTENTS
8.4.3 Fixed-Assigned FDMA, 451
8.4.4 Summary, 452
8.4.5 Outbound TDM Channel, 452
8.5 A Modest VSAT Network in Support of Short
Transaction Communications, 453
8.6 Interference Issues with VSATs, 457
8.7 Excess Attenuation Due to Rainfall, 460
Chapter 9 Radio System Design Above 10 GHz 463
9.1 The ProblemAn Introduction, 463
9.2 The General Propagation Problem Above 10 GHz, 464
9.3 Excess Attenuation Due to Rainfall, 467
9.3.1 Calculation of Excess Attenuation Due
to Rainfall for LOS Microwave Paths, 469
9.4 Calculation of Excess Attenuation Due to
Rainfall for Satellite Paths, 479
9.4.1 Calculation Method, 479
9.4.2 Rainfall Fade Rates, Depths, and Durations, 482
9.4.3 Site or Path Diversity, 483
9.5 Excess Attenuation Due to Atmospheric Gases
on Satellite Links, 484
9.5.1 Example Calculation of Clear Air
AttenuationHypothetical Location, 487
9.5.2 Conversion of Relative Humidity to
Water Vapor Density, 488
9.6 Attenuation Due to Clouds and Fog, 490
9.7 Calculation of Sky Noise Temperature as a
Function of Attenuation, 492
9.8 The Sun as a Noise Generator, 493
9.9 Propagation Effects with a Low Elevation Angle, 495
9.10 Depolarization on Satellite Links, 495
9.11 Scintillation Fading on Satellite Links, 495
9.12 Trade-off Between Free-Space Loss and
Antenna Gain, 496
Chapter 10 Mobile Communications: Cellular Radio and
Personal Communication Services 503
10.1 Introduction, 503
10.1.1 Background, 503
10.1.2 Scope and Objective, 504
CONTENTS xv
10.2 Some Basic Concepts of Cellular Radio, 504
10.2.1 N-AMPS Increases Channel Capacity
Threefold, 508
10.3 Radio Propagation in the Mobile Environment, 509
10.3.1 The Propagation Problem, 509
10.3.2 Several Propagation Models, 509
10.3.3 Microcell Prediction Model According
to Lee, 512
10.4 ImpairmentsFading in the Mobile Environment,
515
10.4.1 Introduction, 515
10.4.2 Classification of Fading, 516
10.4.3 DiversityA Technique to Mitigate
the Effects of Fading and Dispersion, 518
10.4.4 Cellular Radio Path Calculations, 521
10.5 The Cellular Radio Bandwidth Dilemma, 521
10.5.1 Background and Objectives, 521
10.5.2 Bit Rate Reduction of the Digital
Voice Channel, 522
10.6 Network Access Techniques, 522
10.6.1 Introduction, 522
10.6.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access
ŽFDMA., 523
10.6.3 Time Division Multiple Access
ŽTDMA., 524
10.6.4 Code Division Multiple Access
ŽCDMA., 527
10.7 Frequency Reuse, 535
10.8 Paging Systems, 538
10.8.1 What Are Paging Systems?, 538
10.8.2 Radio-Frequency Bands for Pagers, 538
10.8.3 Radio Propagation into Buildings, 538
10.8.4 Techniques Available for Multiple
Transmitter Zones, 538
10.8.5 Paging Receivers, 539
10.8.6 System Capacity, 540
10.8.7 Codes and Formats for Paging Systems, 540
10.8.8 Considerations for Selecting Codes
and Formats, 540
xvi CONTENTS
10.9 Personal Communication Systems, 541
10.9.1 Defining Personal Communications, 541
10.9.2 Narrowband Microcell Propagation
at PCS Distances, 541
10.10 Cordless Telephone Technology, 546
10.10.1 Background, 546
10.10.2 North American Cordless Telephones, 546
10.10.3 European Cordless Telephones, 546
10.11 Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunication System
ŽFPLMTS., 549
10.11.1 Introduction, 549
10.11.2 Traffic Estimates, 549
10.11.2.1 Nonvoice Traffic, 551
10.11.2.2 PCS Outdoors, 551
10.11.2.3 PCS Indoors, 551
10.11.3 Estimates of Spectrum Requirements, 552
10.11.4 Sharing Considerations, 553
10.11.5 Sharing Between FPLMTS and
Other Services, 554
10.12 Mobile Satellite Communications, 554
10.12.1 Background and Scope, 554
10.12.2 Overview of Satellite Mobile Services, 555
10.12.2.1 Existing Systems, 555
10.12.3 System Trends, 555
Chapter 11 Wireless LANs, 561
11.1 Definition, 561
11.2 IEEE802.11 and its Variants, 562
11.3 Wireless LANs and Other Wireless Technologies, 564
11.3.1 Benefits of a Centralized WLAN
Architecture, 565
11.4 Wireless LAN Frequencies, 566
11.5 Wireless LAN Structures, 566
11.6 WLAN Capabilities, 567
11.6.1 Distance Capabilities, 567
11.6.2 The WLAN Signal, 567
11.6.2.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
ŽDSSS., 567
11.6.2.2 Frequency Hop Spread-Spectrum
ŽFHSS., 568
CONTENTS xvii
11.7 IEEE 802.11 Layers, 568
11.8 Software-Defined Radio and Cognitive Radio, 570
11.8.1 Software-Defined Radio Description, 570
11.8.2 Cognitive Radio, 570
Chapter 12 High-Frequency(HF)Transmission Links, 573
12.1 General, 573
12.2 Applications of HF Radio Communication, 573
12.3 Typical HF Link Operation, Conceptual
Introduction, 575
12.4 Basic HF Propagation, 575
12.4.1 Introduction, 575
12.4.2 Skywave Transmission, 577
12.5 Choice of Optimum Operating Frequency, 580
12.5.1 Frequency Management, 587
12.6 Propagation Modes, 598
12.6.1 Basic Groundwave Propagation, 598
12.6.2 Skywave Propagation, 599
12.6.3 Near-Vertical IncidenceŽNVI.
Propagation, 602
12.6.4 Reciprocal Reception, 604
12.7 HF Communication Impairments, 605
12.7.1 Introduction, 605
12.7.2 Fading, 605
12.7.3 Effects of Impairments at the HF
Receiver, 608
12.8 Mitigation of Propagation-Related Impairments, 611
12.9 HF ImpairmentsNoise in the Receiving System, 613
12.9.1 Introduction, 613
12.9.2 Interference, 613
12.9.3 Atmospheric Noise, 616
12.9.4 Man-Made Noise, 622
12.9.5 Receiver Thermal Noise, 625
12.10 Notes on HF Link Transmission Loss
Calculations, 625
12.10.1 Introduction, 625
12.10.2 Transmission Loss Components, 625
12.10.3 A Simplified Example of Transmission
Loss Calculation, 634
12.10.4 Groundwave Transmission Loss, 635
xviii CONTENTS
12.11 Link Analysis for Equipment Dimensioning, 640
12.11.1 Introduction, 640
12.11.2 Methodology, 641
12.12 Some Advanced Modulation and Coding
Schemes, 643
12.12.1 Two Approaches, 643
12.12.2 Parallel Tone Operation, 643
12.12.3 Serial Tone Operation, 645
12.13 Improved Lincompex for HF Radio Telephone
Circuits, 650
Chapter 13 Meteor Burst Communication 657
13.1 Introduction, 657
13.2 Meteor Trails, 658
13.2.1 General, 658
13.2.2 Distribution of Meteors, 660
13.2.3 Underdense Trails, 660
13.2.4 Overdense Trails, 661
13.3 Typical Meteor Burst Terminals and Their
Operation, 663
13.4 System Design Parameters, 665
13.4.1 Introduction, 665
13.4.2 Operating Frequency, 666
13.4.3 Data Rate, 666
13.4.4 Transmit Power, 666
13.4.5 Antenna Gain, 666
13.4.6 Receiver Threshold, 666
13.5 Prediction of MBC Link Performance, 667
13.5.1 Introduction, 667
13.5.2 Receiver Threshold, 667
13.5.3 Positions of Regions of Optimum
Scatter, 668
13.5.4 Effective Length, Average Height,
and Radius of Meteor Trails, 670
13.5.5 Ambipolar Diffusion Constant, 671
13.5.6 Received Power, 671
13.5.7 Meteor Rate, 674
13.5.8 Burst Time Duration, 675
13.5.9 Burst Rate Correction Factor, 678
13.5.10 Waiting Time Probability, 679
CONTENTS xix
13.6 DesignrPerformance Prediction Procedure, 683
13.7 Notes on MBC Transmission Loss, 683
13.8 MBC Circuit Optimization, 685
13.9 Meteor Burst Networks, 686
13.10 Privacy and the Meteor Burst Footprint, 686
Chapter 14 Interference Issues in Radio Communications 691
14.1 Rationale, 691
14.2 Spurious Response Interference Windows
at a Receiver, 692
14.3 Typical Interference Control for Line-of-Sight
Microwave and Satellite Communication
Facilities, 693
14.3.1 Introduction, 693
14.3.2 Conceptual Approach to Interference
Determination, 694
14.3.3 Applicable FCC Rule for Minimum
Antenna Radiation Suppression, 699
14.3.4 Coordination Contours, 702
14.4 Victim Digital Systems, 704
14.5 Definition of CrI Ratio, 706
14.5.1 Example CrI Calculations Based
on Ref. 6, 706
14.5.2 Example of Digital Interferer into
Victim Digital System, 710
14.6 Obstructed Interfering Paths, 712
14.7 ITU-R Approach to Digital Link Performance
Under Interference Conditions, 714
14.7.1 Gaussian Interference Environment
M-QAM Systems, 714
Chapter 15 Radio Terminal Design Considerations 721
15.1 Objective, 721
15.1.1 The Generic Terminal, 721
15.2 Analog Line-of-Sight Radiolink Terminals
and Repeaters, 722
15.2.1 Basic Analog LOS Microwave Terminal, 722
15.3 Digital LOS Microwave Terminals, 725
15.3.1 Gray or Reflected Binary Codes, 728
xx CONTENTS
15.3.2 The Antenna Subsystem for LOS
Microwave Installations, 729
15.3.3 Analog Radiolink Repeaters, 740
15.3.4 Diversity Combiners, 741
15.3.5 Hot-Standby Operation, 749
15.3.6 Pilot Tones, 753
15.3.7 Service Channels, 755
15.3.8 Alarm and Supervisory Subsystems, 756
15.3.9 Antenna TowersGeneral, 760
15.3.10 Waveguide Pressurization, 765
15.4 Tropospheric Scatter and Diffraction
Installations: Analog and Digital, 766
15.4.1 Antennas, Transmission Lines,
Duplexer, and Related Transmission
Line Devices, 768
15.4.2 ModulatorExciter and Power Amplifier,
769
15.4.3 FM Receiver Group, 770
15.4.4 Diversity Operation, 770
15.4.5 Isolation, 771
15.5 Satellite Communications, Terminal Segment, 772
15.5.1 Functional Operation of a ‘‘Standard’’
Earth Station, 772
15.5.2 The Antenna Subsystem, 777
15.5.3 Very Small Aperture Terminals
ŽVSATs., 787
15.6 Cellular and PCS Installations: Analog and
Digital, 788
15.6.1 Introduction, 788
15.6.2 Base Station or Cell Design Concepts, 789
15.6.3 The MTSO or MSC, 791
15.6.4 Personal Communication Services, 793
15.7 HF Terminals and Antennas, 794
15.7.1 Introduction, 794
15.7.2 Composition of Basic HF Equipment, 795
15.7.3 Basic Single-SidebandŽSSB.Operation, 796
15.7.4 SSB System Considerations, 797
15.7.5 Linear Power Amplifiers, 798
15.7.6 HF Configuration Notes, 800
15.7.7 HF Antennas, 800
CONTENTS xxi
15.8 Meteor Burst Installations, 808
15.8.1 Yagi Antennas, 808
Appendix 1 Availability of a Line-of-Sight Microwave Link 815
A1.1 Introduction, 815
A1.2 Contributors to Unavailability, 816
A1.3 Availability Requirements, 817
A1.4 Calculation of Availability of LOS Radiolinks
in Tandem, 817
A1.4.1 Discussion of Partition of Unavailability, 817
A1.4.2 Propagation Availability, 819
A1.5 Improving Availability, 819
A1.6 Application to Other Radio Media, 820
Appendix 2 Reference Fields and Theoretical References;
Converting RF Field Strength to Power 821
A2.1 Reference FieldsTheoretical References, 821
A2.2 Conversion of Radio-FrequencyŽRF.Field
Strength to Power, 823
Appendix 3 Glossary of Acronyms and Abbreviations 825
Index 837